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Health Determinants - 1423 Words

TITLE By student’s Name Course Code + Name Professor’s Name Institution DATE Health Determinants Introduction Health plays an important factor in the everyday life. In our society, there are those who stay healthy while others always unhealthy. In the field of nursing, it is important to find out reasons as to why lack of health is a continuing problem in the society. This is the key to becoming effective in the sector. The parameters that define health are known as health determinants. These range from social, economic, personal, and environmental factors. This is an important topic as it holds the key to the professional nursing practise. Dealing with health issues is no longer an easy affair as it was earlier. In the†¦show more content†¦In the long, a certain community become prone to certain diseases than others. For nursing to be effective, it will call for the establishment of those policies that ensure equality of participation, contribution, and opportunity (Potter and Perry, 2006). Individual Health Practices and Coping Skills Individual health practices and coping skills are those activities that people are able to employ with an aim of promoting health care, preventing diseases, solving certain problems, or developing self reliance. These factors are majorly lifestyle- related. This means that the personal health practices involve certain individual choices. It should be noted that these individual choices are mostly influenced by the social, environmental, and economic factors. In most cases, all these factors would be play within places where a person stays, grows, work, and/or learns. In today’s world, human kind is presented with a lot of choices to embrace. Some of these choices adversely affect the health condition of individuals. Research has shown that heart diseases are very much associated with the psychological and biochemical pathways linkable with socioeconomic events. An example of individual health choice is smoking. The numbers of smoke rs continue to increase by each year among the younger generation. In Canada, this rate has been found in certain communities like the Aboriginals. Other hazardous behaviours that adversely affect health include: unprotected orShow MoreRelatedThe Social Determinants Of Health2207 Words   |  9 Pagesdisadvantage and significantly more health problems than the non-Aboriginal Torres strait Islander population in Australia† The social determinants of health Health as a whole is determined by the quality of life, as well as an individuals’ ability to create personal positive social and physical environments. These environments include homes, schools, workplaces and the community as a whole. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2003), the social determinants of health are conditions in whichRead Moredeterminants of health Essay1371 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ Health Promotion Essay- The Determinants of Health The determinants of health are economic and social conditions that affect people’s health status. These influence the living and working conditions that impacts people’s everyday living condition. Factors such as the place and the environment we live in, genetics, educational level or work status and income, as well as friends and family are some of the aspects that affects our health condition. On the other hand, the people that have an accessRead MoreHealth Policies and Health Determinants1438 Words   |  6 PagesReceived - A Discuss the ways that health can be conceptualized by a society. What are the determinants of health in humans? What is the connection between how a society defines health and how it pursues health? Has increased access to technology changed that perception over the last decade? Discuss the connection between health policies, health determinants, and health. Abstract Health policies, health determinants and health are all categories that are intertwinedRead MoreThe Social Determinants Of Health1377 Words   |  6 Pages A group of fellow students and my self conducted a public health walk in the area of hackney borough. Our aim was to observe the community and how their surroundings affected their health. On 4th November 2014, we met at 10am and started our walk at St. Johns church. Prior to this day we met up to plan on our walk and how we will conduct it. While on our walk we observed how diverse and cultural the area was, we observed the people socialising in the street, the services available for these peopleRead MoreSocial Determinants Of Health And Health1170 Words   |  5 PagesSocial determinants of health are social, economic and physical factors that affect the health of individuals in any given population. There are fourteen social determinants of health but Income is perhaps the most important of these because it shapes living conditions, influences health related behaviors, and determines food security. In Canada, people with lower incomes are more susceptible to disease/ conditions, higher mortality rate, decreased life expectancy and poorer perceived health than peopleRead MoreThe Social Determinants Of Health3749 Words   |  15 PagesHealth Promotion is an important aspect among health and the wellbeing of individuals. In order to solve the challenges facing nutrition and food practice, health promotion is way to allow individuals and the community to increase and take control over their health. The concept of Health promotion examines the implications of food and health, ethics and diversity in food and nutrition. It is very meaningful to many individuals who lack support or facing challenges because it allows professionalsRead MoreDeterminants Of Health And Health Of Canada Essay1394 Words   |  6 PagesDeterminants of health are specific categories in a person s life which impact their mental and physical health. Brought into light by a report produced for the Government of Canada by the minister of national health and welfare Marc Lalonde in 1974 tit led A new perspective on the health of Canadians Ottawa. The report sought to move healthcare in Canada from a purely physiological process into one which included preventative measures from environment and lifestyle. This behavioural approach wasRead MoreSocial Determinants Of Health And Health1238 Words   |  5 Pagesthat are not in the proper state of health. The purpose of using social determinants is to create the optimal social/physical environment that will contribute and allow individuals to enjoy a healthier lifestyle, and thus become healthier. (Social Determinants of Health - Healthy People, n.d., p. 01) The Five key areas that are addressed in the social determinants of health are: Economic Stability, Education, Social and Community Context, Health and Health Care, and Neighborhood and Built EnvironmentRead MoreSocial Determinants Of Health And Health873 Words   |  4 Pages Better research on immigrant health and health outcomes would go a long way to shining a light on how to tackle these problems. The current debate in the research concentrates on social determinants of health such as acculturation, which of course influences a lot of other health and healthcare decisions made by immigrants. However, only focusing on social determinants of health undermines the importance of other factors that also heavily affect immigrant health in the United States. SpecificallyRead MoreThe Determinants Of Health And Wellbeing2634 Words   |  11 Pages The Determinants of Health Wellbeing Public Health of an individual The purpose of this assignment is to analyse a public health issue that is an occurring issue with a service user I have come in contact with during practice. Obesity is the public health issue that will be discussed and the policy that relates to it ‘Reducing obesity and improving diet’ which was published by (Department of Health, 2013). This policy addresses the public health issue and provides ideas

Short Story - 1519 Words

The mental struggle to move was overpowered by physical restrictions, but the fight of determination was forceful, his words broke free of the strain and he finally managed to answer the voice that repeatedly called his name. But the voice was not the only call for his attention, someone was touching his foot. â€Å"Runny? Runny?† The voice projected barely above a whisper and the contact on his left leg became ignorable. He tried to sit up, but sharp unbearable pains rushed through his body. He fought to become fully alert and was unable to contrast the variation of voices that called out his name. Seconds later, the room was filled with staff members who were moving about in a panicking manner. Among the attendees was, Dr. Gwen, who bent the†¦show more content†¦The doctor turned to start the process, but Mini clutched his arm, almost startling the doctor. The doctor eye’s travel to Mini’s grip that tightly held his arm, making him quite uncomfortable. His eyes meet Mini’s eyes. â€Å"Doc, please don’t let me die.† Chapter 2 â€Å"Mr. Clem?† Dr. Gwen entered the hospital room, his eyes rapidly moved over Mini’s entire body, observing his patient like the eyes of a hawk. He grabbed the medical chart and examined it thoroughly, he looked over the chart before he dropped it and spoke. â€Å"I’m going to be discharging you today. I’m prescribing you pain pills to alleviate any pains. I’ve also sent in an order to the county jail for physical rehabilitation.† Mini looked the doctor squarely in his eyes, his gaze commissioned for the truth. â€Å"So how long will it be before I’m able to walk?† â€Å"Copy that.† The deputy sheriff’s radio announced its presence. Both Mini and the doctor turned to the sheriff who was sent to escort Mini, he reached to his side and lowered the volume. The doctor turned back to Mini. â€Å"Well, Mr. Clem. That all depends on you and your determination. You are all set to go. I should see you again in six weeks,† He reached his hand out to shake Mini’s hand. â€Å"Good luck, Mr. Clem.† The doctor turned toward the officer. â€Å"Give me a moment and I will have the nurse summon an ambulance to transportShow MoreRelatedshort story1018 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Short Stories:  Ã‚  Characteristics †¢Short  - Can usually be read in one sitting. †¢Concise:  Ã‚  Information offered in the story is relevant to the tale being told.  Ã‚  This is unlike a novel, where the story can diverge from the main plot †¢Usually tries to leave behind a  single impression  or effect.  Ã‚  Usually, though not always built around one character, place, idea, or act. †¢Because they are concise, writers depend on the reader bringing  personal experiences  and  prior knowledge  to the story. Four MajorRead MoreThe Short Stories Ideas For Writing A Short Story Essay1097 Words   |  5 Pageswriting a short story. Many a time, writers run out of these short story ideas upon exhausting their sources of short story ideas. If you are one of these writers, who have run out of short story ideas, and the deadline you have for coming up with a short story is running out, the short story writing prompts below will surely help you. Additionally, if you are being tormented by the blank Microsoft Word document staring at you because you are not able to come up with the best short story idea, youRead MoreShort Story1804 Words   |  8 PagesShort story: Definition and History. A  short story  like any other term does not have only one definition, it has many definitions, but all of them are similar in a general idea. According to The World Book Encyclopedia (1994, Vol. 12, L-354), â€Å"the short story is a short work of fiction that usually centers around a single incident. Because of its shorter length, the characters and situations are fewer and less complicated than those of a novel.† In the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s DictionaryRead MoreShort Stories648 Words   |  3 Pageswhat the title to the short story is. The short story theme I am going conduct on is â€Å"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty’ by James Thurber (1973). In this short story the literary elements being used is plot and symbols and the theme being full of distractions and disruption. The narrator is giving a third person point of view in sharing the thoughts of the characters. Walter Mitty the daydreamer is very humorous in the different plots of his dr ifting off. In the start of the story the plot, symbols,Read MoreShort Stories1125 Words   |  5 PagesThe themes of short stories are often relevant to real life? To what extent do you agree with this view? In the short stories â€Å"Miss Brill† and â€Å"Frau Brechenmacher attends a wedding† written by Katherine Mansfield, the themes which are relevant to real life in Miss Brill are isolation and appearance versus reality. Likewise Frau Brechenmacher suffers through isolation throughout the story and also male dominance is one of the major themes that are highlighted in the story. These themes areRead MoreShort Story and People1473 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Title: Story Of An Hour Author: Kate Chopin I. On The Elements / Literary Concepts The short story Story Of An Hour is all about the series of emotions that the protagonist, Mrs. Mallard showed to the readers. With the kind of plot of this short story, it actually refers to the moments that Mrs. Mallard knew that all this time, her husband was alive. For the symbol, I like the title of this short story because it actually symbolizes the time where Mrs. Mallard died with joy. And with thatRead MoreShort Story Essay1294 Words   |  6 PagesA short story concentrates on creating a single dynamic effect and is limited in character and situation. It is a language of maximum yet economical effect. Every word must do a job, sometimes several jobs. Short stories are filled with numerous language and sound devices. These language and sound devices create a stronger image of the scenario or the characters within the text, which contribute to the overall pre-designed effect.As it is shown in the metaphor lipstick bleeding gently in CinnamonRead MoreRacism in the Short Stor ies1837 Words   |  7 PagesOften we read stories that tell stories of mixing the grouping may not always be what is legal or what people consider moral at the time. The things that you can learn from someone who is not like you is amazing if people took the time to consider this before judging someone the world as we know it would be a completely different place. The notion to overlook someone because they are not the same race, gender, creed, religion seems to be the way of the world for a long time. Racism is so prevalentRead MoreThe Idol Short Story1728 Words   |  7 PagesThe short stories â€Å"The Idol† by Adolfo Bioy Casares and â€Å"Axolotl† by Julio Cortà ¡zar address the notion of obsession, and the resulting harm that can come from it. Like all addictions, obsession makes one feel overwhelmed, as a single thought comes to continuously intruding our mind, causing the individual to not be able to ignore these thoughts. In â€Å"Axolotl†, the narr ator is drawn upon the axolotls at the Jardin des Plantes aquarium and his fascination towards the axolotls becomes an obsession. InRead MoreGothic Short Story1447 Words   |  6 Pages The End. In the short story, â€Å"Emma Barrett,† the reader follows a search party group searching for a missing girl named Emma deep in a forest in Oregon. The story follows through first person narration by a group member named Holden. This story would be considered a gothic short story because of its use of setting, theme, symbolism, and literary devices used to portray the horror of a missing six-year-old girl. Plot is the literal chronological development of the story, the sequence of events

John Dickson Book Critique - 1255 Words

Liberty Theological Seminary John Dickson Book Critique Humilitas: A Lost Key to Life, Love, AND Leadership A paper Submitted to Dr. Donald Hicks In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Course Preventing Ministry Failure Lead 625 By Dwight Chavis February 22, 2014 Table of Contents Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦page 1 Critique †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...page 2 Evaluation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...page 4 Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..........page 4 Bibliography †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.......page 5 SUMMARY Author John Dickson has written a book on a word that is often misunderstood and misused. In his book Humilitas: A Lost Key to Life, Love, AND Leadership, He†¦show more content†¦He writes, â€Å"Uppermost in a father’s mind in the ancient world was not whether his son would be happy (in the modern sense) or make money to live morally, but whether the boy would bring honour to the family.† Dickson illuminates for the reader that there was a time when humility was simply regarded as weakness, and was seen as inconsequential in the pursuit of one’s honor. The greatest area of his work lies and is found in the way he was able to show how Jesus started the revolution toward the pursuit of humility in a time when the honor-shame society was at its height. He attributes the success of Jesus in the area not to Jesus’ persona exactly, but rather his execution. Crucifixion was the ancient world’s ultimate punishment and Jesus suffered a dea th that was reserved for slaves and political rebels. This death Dickson describes as the turning point because Christians came to see the death of Jesus not as the evidence of Jesus’ humiliation, but proof that greatness can be seen in times of immense suffering. Jesus called Himself a king yet he suffered the death of a common slave. Dickson’s work is great in this area because he is able to show that Jesus showed humility while perfectly modeling and persuading toward humility over self-enlargement. EVALUATION Although Dickson wants this book to be a practical view on the subject of humility, this book should be viewed as a self help book. This book is very practical and it uses some personal illustrationsShow MoreRelatedAction Research Literature Review2754 Words   |  12 Pages1996; Susman and Evered, 1978). These can be summarised as follows:  § The impossibility of achieving the assumption of objectivity in research findings and outcomes as well as the ability to control a limited number of research variables.  § A critique of the notion of researchers attaining a detached/value free/neutral position and a recognition of the existence of oppressive ideologies and vested interests;  § A questioning of a ‘scientific approach and the features of generalisability, establishingRead More British-Chinese Relations in the Nineteenth Century and Alicia Bewicke Littles Novel, A Marriage in China4897 Words   |  20 PagesLittle had an ideological stake in Chinas future as the founder of the first Western anti-footbinding movement in China. By combining realistic slice of life details with imaginative fable, Little creates characters and situations that mirror and critique the attitudes and solutions proposed by these different groups. In other words, in A Marriage in China, Little both reinforces and dooms to failure the imagined history of British-Chinese relations: that is, the long and increasingly burdensomeRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe / Emily Dickinson3782 Words   |  16 Pagesoverflowing of emotions, with â€Å"lyrical ballads† maintaining that all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling. The romantic period in American literature, which included writers like Washington Irving, Emerson, Thoreau, Emily Dickson, Edgar Allen Poe, Nathanial Hawthorne, Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, and others. Romanticism is a movement in the arts that flourished in Europe and America throughout much of the 19th century from the period of the French revolution in 1789. RomanticRead MoreUnethical Behaviour12228 Words   |  49 PagesExamples of unethical behavior of seemingly successful leaders abound in business, government, and religion. Names like Kenneth Lay, Andrew Fastow, and Jeffrey Skilling of Enron; Dennis Koslowski of Tyco; Eliot Spitzer, former Governor of New York; John Edwards, former U.S. Senator from North Carolina; and Archbishop Bernard Law of the Boston Roman Catholic Diocese bring to mind those whose previous success ended in humiliation. As a result, several sobering questions arise including how leaders madeRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pages. Organization Theory Challenges and Perspectives John McAuley, Joanne Duberley and Phil Johnson . This book is, to my knowledge, the most comprehensive and reliable guide to organisational theory currently available. What is needed is a text that will give a good idea of the breadth and complexity of this important subject, and this is precisely what McAuley, Duberley and Johnson have provided. They have done some sterling service in bringing together the very diverse strands of workRead MoreSarasvathy, Causation and Effectuation-Toward a Theoretical Shift from Economic Inevitability to14504 Words   |  59 Pagessimple assumptions of rationality (implying causal reasoning) in their choice behavior. The causation process used in the example here is typified by and embodied in the procedures stated by Philip Kotler in his Marketing Management (1991: 63, 263), a book that in its many editions is consid- 246 Academy of Management Review April ered a classic and is widely used as a textbook in MBA programs around the world. Kotler defines a market as follows: A market consists of all the potentialRead MoreOrganization Restructuring26680 Words   |  107 PagesRESISTANCE TO CHANGE: Are participants likely to resist change? How can that be overcome? 15. MAINTAINING CHANGE: What should be done to minimize the return to old habits? 16. FOLLOW-UP: Is follow-up needed? 17. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS/CRITIQUE: What else do we need to know? 18. REFERENCES: Citations (particularly for Sections 5 (a b), 13, and 14) are provided. TABLE OF CONTENTS Intervention Name Page Total Quality Management †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 EmployeeRead MoreHow Fa Has the Use of English Language Enriched or Disrupted Life and Culture in Mauritius15928 Words   |  64 PagesASSIGNMENTS †¢ SYLLABUS †¢ DISCUSSION †¢ CLOSE READINGS CLOSE READINGS Post your close reading posts here. Share this: †¢ Twitter †¢ Facebook †¢ Like this: Like Loading... [pic] 26 Comments on â€Å"CLOSE READINGS† 1. [pic]John Cooper says: July 13, 2011 at 3:36 pm Emily Dickenson’s poem â€Å"Because I could not stop for Death† details the events the narrator experiences after dying. In the poem, the narrator is driven around in a horse-drawn carriage to severalRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesSuzanne Duda Lead Media Project Manager: Denise Vaughn Full-Service Project Management: Sharon Anderson/BookMasters, Inc. Composition: Integra Software Services Printer/Binder: Edwards Brothers Cover Printer: Coral Graphics Text Font: 10/12 Weidemann-Book Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text. Copyright  © 2011, 2007, 2005, 2002, 1998 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, OneRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOne Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational behavior / Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge

Has Gallo Proven The Role Of Hiv In Aids Essay Example For Students

Has Gallo Proven The Role Of Hiv In Aids? Essay Introduction In 1982, Robert Gallo from the National Cancer Institute in the USA, put forward the hypothesis that the cause of AIDS is a retrovirus. One year later, Myron Essex and his colleagues (1) found that AIDS patients had antibodies to the Human T-cell Leukemia virus Type-1 (HTLV-I), a virus discovered by Gallo a few years earlier. At the same time, Gallo and his colleagues (2) reported the isolation of HTLV-I from AIDS patients and advocated a role for this retrovirus in the pathogenesis of AIDS. This hypothesis however, was not without a few problems: 1. While HTLV-I was accepted to induce T4-cell proliferation and cause adult T-cell leukaemia,(3) the hallmark of AIDS was T4-cell depletion, and the incidence of leukaemia in AIDS patients was no higher than in the general population; 2. The highest frequency of antibodies to this virus was found in Japan, yet no AIDS cases had been reported from that country;(4) 3. In the same month in which Gallos and Essexs groups reported their data, Luc Montagnier and his colleagues from the Pasteur Institute, described the isolation of a retrovirus, later known as Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus (LAV), from the lymph nodes of a homosexual patient with lymphadenopathy.(5) Although this virus was similar to HTLV-I, one of its proteins, a protein with a molecular weight of 24,000 (p24), did not react with monoclonal antibodies to the HTLV-I p24 protein. Samples of this virus were, on several occasions, sent to Gallos laboratory. In May 1984, Gallo, Popovic and their colleagues published four papers in Science in which they claimed to have isolated from AIDS patients, another retrovirus, which they called HTLV-III.(6,7,8,9) On the 23rd of April 1984, before the Science papers were published, Gallo and Margaret Heckler, the then Health and Human Services Secretary called a press conference to announce that Gallo and his co-workers had found the cause of AIDS and had developed a sensitive test to show whether the AIDS virus is present in blood. In 1985, the Pasteur Institute alleged that Gallo had misappropriated LAV in developing the blood test. The ensuing conflict, which reached the American courts, was eventually settled by a negotiated agreement signed in 1987 by Gallo, Montagnier, US President Reagan and French Premier Chirac. The agreement declared Gallo and Montagnier to be co-discoverers of the AIDS virus, presently known as the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Nevertheless, the misappropriation conflict drew the attention of John Crewdson, an investigative journalist, and US Senator John Dingell. In November 1989, Crewdson published a lengthy article in the Chicago Tribune newspaper, With allegations that Robert C. Gallo stole from French scientists the virus he discovered to be the cause of AIDS. (10) This led to a National Institute of Health (NIH) internal inquiry into the allegation with an outside committee of expert but disinterested parties led by Yale biochemist Frederic Richards to oversee the activity of the internal panel.(11) Following the inquiry, which was viewed as a fact-finding mission, the Richards committee insisted on a formal investigation on suspect data in one of four seminal papers published by Gallos lab in Science on 4 May 1984.(12) In this paper, the first of a series of four, with Mikulas Popovic the principal author, their appears to be differences between what was described in the paper and what was done. (10) A draft report of the formal investigation written by NIH Office of Scientific Integrity (OSI), was published in September 1991. In the draft report, Popovic is accused of misconduct for misstatements and inaccuracies that appeared in the paper, and that Gallo, as laboratory chief, created and fostered conditions that give rise to falsified/ fabricated data and falsified reports. However, Gallos actions were not considered to meet the formal definition of misconduct.(13) The final draft report of the OSI, completed in January 1992, was immediately criticised by the Richards Panel as well as Senator Dingell. This led to a review of the OSI report by the Office of Research Integrity (ORI), which found Gallo guilty of scientific misconduct. Nonetheless, the scientific misconduct is said not to negate the central findings of the 1984 Science paper. Asian Philosophies of Critical Thinking Essay Among the recipients of WBI blood, 36% were WBI 6 months after transfusion, but so were 42% of individuals who received WB-negative samples. Both donors and recipients of blood remained healthy. They concluded that WBI patterns are exceedingly common in randomly selected donors and recipients and such patterns do not correlate with the presence of HIV-1 or the transmission of HIV-1, most such reactions represent false- positive results; 3. Antibodies to p24 have been detected in 1 out of 150 healthy individuals, 13% of randomly selected otherwise healthy patients with generalised warts, 24% of patients with cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and prodrome and 41% of patients with multiple sclerosis;(52) 4. Ninety seven percent of sera from homosexuals with ITP and 94% of sera from homosexuals with lymphandenopathy or AIDS contain an antibody that reacts with a 25Kd membrane antigen found in platelets from healthy donors and AIDS patients, as well as a 25 Kd antigen found in green-monkey kidney cells, human skin fibroblasts, and herpes simplex cultured in monkey kidney cells. This reaction was absent in sera obtained from non-homosexual patients with ITP or non-immune thrombocytopenic purpura;(48) 5. Conversely, the p24 antigen is not found in all HIV positive or even AIDS patients. In one study, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and p24 were used to detect HIV in patients at various CDC stages from asymptomatic to AIDS. p24 was detected in 24% patients and HIV RNA in 50%;(53) 6. In another study, In half of the cases in which a subject had a positive p24 test, the subject later had a negative test without taking any medications that would be expected to affect p24 antigen levels the test is clinically erratic and should be interpreted very cautiously.(54) Thus the finding of viral particles in the AIDS cultures/co- cultures, RT and proteins which react with AIDS related sera in the material from the supernatant or cell lysates which in sucrose density gradients bands at 1.16 gm/ml, cannot be considered synonymous with the isolation or even the detection of a retrovirus. Even if a retrovirus is isolated from in vitro cultures/co-cultures from tissues from AIDS patients, this does not, by itself, constitute proof of the existence of the virus in vivo, (in AIDS patients), and even less that the retrovirus has been exogenously acquired. This is because: 1. At present, it is generally accepted that one of the most striking features that distinguish retroviruses from all other animal retroviruses is the presence, in the chromosomes of normal uninfected cells, of genomes closely related to, or identical with those of infectious viruses. The human genome, in addition to other proviral sequences, is known to contain both HTLV-I (55,56) and HIV (57) sequences. Depending on conditions, the proviral genome remains unexpressed or part or all of it may be expressed. The latter may or may not lead to the assembly of viral particles (endogenous retrovirus).(17) In animal cultures, healthy non-virus producing cells sooner or later spontaneously release retroviruses.(20) The appearance and yield can be increased by (i) mitogenic stimulation;(58) (ii) co-cultivation techniques;(59) (iii) cultivation of cells with supernatant from non-virus producing cultures.(60) According to one eminent retrovirologist, George Todaro, the failure to isolate endogenous viruses from certain species may reflect thelimitation of in vitro cocultivation techniques;(61) 2. Gallos team, like everybody else: (i) isolated HTLV-III (HIV) from cell cultures; (ii) isolated HTLV-III from mitogenically stimulated, activated cell cultures; 3. In addition, Gallo and his colleagues also used co-cultivation techniques; 4. The first HTLV-III isolation was from the HT (H4, H9, H17) cell line. Reading Gallo and his colleagues first paper, one surmises that the HT cell line was established in Gallos laboratory. The Gallo inquiry revealed that the HT cell line is in fact HUT78, a cell line established in another laboratory from a patient with mature T4-cell leukaemia, a disease which Gallo claims is caused by the exogenous retrovirus, HTLV-I.(3) If so, then all HT cell cultures, and the clones derived from it, infected with HTLV-III or non-infected, and the material from these cultures which bands at 1.16 gm/ml, should contain HTLV-I, and thus RT and retroviral particles. Furthermore, because about 25% of AIDS patients have antibodies to HTVL-I,(1) and the immunogenic proteins of HTLV-I and HIV have the same molecular weights, then approximately 25% of the non-infected HT (H4, H9, H17) cultures in addition to RT and particles, should have, in the Western blot, the same bands as those of the HTLV-III infected cultures. Thus, these WBs will erroneously appear positive for HTLV-III. Proof that HTLV-III (HIV) is causally linked to AIDS. Gallo claims, a claim accepted by the vast majority of AIDS researchers, that in the May 1984 Science papers he and his colleagues presented unambiguous evidence that this and this alone was the cause of AIDS.(62) A minimum requirement for making such a claim should be presentation of the following evidence: 1. That all AIDS patients are infected with HTLV-III; 2. Infection with HTLV-III leads to T4-cell depletion, given the assumption that HTLV-III leads to the clinical syndrome by its T4 cytotoxicity. The evidence for the existence of HTLV-III was viral isolation and ELISA antibody tests. Even if one assumes that the data presented represents true isolation, the virus was isolated from less that half (10/21) of AIDS patients with opportunistic infections, and in less than one third (13/43) with Kaposis sarcoma, then and now the two most characteristic AIDS diseases. Even if the virus could have been isolated from all patients, given the nature of retroviruses and the method used for HTLV-III isolation (cultures, mitogenic stimulation, co- cultivation) the possibility cannot be excluded that the virus did not exist in vivo (in AIDS patients), and that it was a provirus whose expression was facilitated by the culture conditions. The only method used to prove HIV infection in vivo was the antibody tests. Such a test can only be used only after its specificity has been proven by use of the only possible gold standard, the virus itself. This has not been done. Furthermore, the antibody test used by Gallo was ELISA, at present known to be non-reproducible and non-specific. In a study of 1.2 million healthy military applicants conducted by Colonel Donald Burke and his colleagues,(63) it was found that although approximately 1% of all individuals had an initial positive HIV ELISA, only 50% of repeat ELISAs were positive. Of the latter, only approximately one third were associated with two subsequent positive WBs. In Russia, in 1990, out of 20,000 positive ELISAs only 112 were confirmed using the WB as a gold standard. In 1991, of approximately 30,000 positive ELISAs, only 66 were confirmed.(64) Nowhere in the four Science papers was HTVL-III cytotoxicity mentioned. The only reference to any cellular abnormalities or pathology in general is in the first paper where one reads: The virus positive cultures consistently showed a high proportion of round giant cells containing numerous nuclei (Fig. 1a). These cells resemble those induced by HTLV-I and -II except that the nuclei exhibit a characteristic ring formation. (Fig. 1a is a light microscopic examination of clone H4/HTLV-III). The H4 clone was obtained from the HT cell line using irradiated mononuclear cells from peripheral blood of a healthy blood donor as a feeder. At present, it is known that the HT cell line and thus H4 are HUT78, derived in 1980 from a patient with mature T4-cell leukaemia,(65,66) However, other cell lines derived from patients with the same clinical syndrome are known to exhibit similar morphologies including multinucleated giant cells.(67) Thus the cellular morphological characteristics observed in the first paper may have been an intrinsic property of the HT cell line, or the result of the culture conditions, or both, and not due to HTLV-III. Finally, Gallo and his colleagues did not provide any data on the immunological status of those individuals from whom viral isolation was attempted, and no data was presented proving that: 1. HTLV-III (HIV) is both a necessary and sufficient cause of T4- cell depletion; 2. T4-cell depletion is both necessary and sufficient for the appearance of the AIDS indicator diseases. Conclusions The data and arguments that have been presented by Gallo and his colleagues do not constitute proof of HIV isolation or an unambiguous role for HIV in the pathogenesis of AIDS. Although some researchers currently use methods of viral isolation essentially the same as that described by Gallos group, most use less rigorous methods including singleton detection of p24 (by antibody techniques), or RT. Notwithstanding, with all of these techniques, including that described by Gallo and his colleagues, which itself seen to be greatly problematic, HIV cannot be isolated from 20%-70% of HIV positive and AIDS patients(68,69) Thus we are faced with a problem of considerable importance. The HIV antibody tests, both ELISA and WB, the only routinely used tests proving the existence in vivo of HIV, have yet to be verified against the only suitable gold standard, viral isolation. The available evidence suggests that this long overdue but most basic requirement of test evaluation is likely to prove an immense problem, and while the HIV antibody tests are useful prognostic markers in the high risk groups, their use as diagnostic and epidemiological tools for HIV infection is questionable.References 1. Essex M, McLane MF, Lee TH, et al. Antibodies to Cell Membrane Antigens Associated with Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Patients with AIDS. Science 1985;220:859-862. 2. Gallo RC, Sarin PS, Gelmann EP, et al. Isolation of Human T- Cell Leukemia Virus in Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Science 1983;220:865-867. 3. Gallo RC. The First Human Retrovirus. Sci Am 1986; 255:78-88. 4. Marx JL. Human T-Cell Leukemia Linked to AIDS. Science 1983;220:806-809. 5. Barre-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, et al. Isolation of a T-Lymphotrophic Retrovirus from a patient at Risk for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Science 1983;220:868-871. 6. Popovic M, Sarngadharan MG, Read E, et al. Detection, Isolation,and Continuous Production of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and Pre-AIDS. Science 1984;224:497-500. 7. Gallo RC, Salahuddin SZ, Popovic M, et al. Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and at Risk for AIDS. Science 1984;224:500-502. 8. Schupbach J, Popovic M, Gilden RV, et al. Serological analysis of a Subgroup of Human T-Lymphotrophic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) Associated with AIDS. Science 1984;224:503-505. 9. Sarngadharan MG, Popovic M,Bruch L, et al. Antibodies Reactive to Human T-Lymphotrophic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the Serum of Patients with AIDS. Science 1984:224:506-508. 10. Culliton BJ. Gallo Inquiry Takes Puzzling New Turn. Science 1990:250:202-203. 11. Culliton BJ. Inside the Gallo Probe. Science 1990;248:1494-1498. 12. Hamilton DP. What Next in the Gallo Case? Science 1991;254:944-945. 13. Palca J. Draft of Gallo Report Sees the Light of Day. Science 1991;253:1347-1348. 14. Cohen J. HHS: Gallo Guilty of Misconduct. Science 1993:259:168-170. 15. Gallo RC, Sarin PS, Kramarsky B. et al. First isolation of HTLV-III. Nature 1986;321:119. BibliographyThe evidence that Robert Gallo and his colleagues presented on 4th May 1984 regarding HTLV-III (HIV) isolation and the role of HIV in the pathogenesis of AIDS is critically analysed. It is concluded that the evidence does not constitute proof of the isolation of a retrovirus, that the virus is exogenous or that the virus is causally related to AIDS. Medicine Essays

Domestic or wild animal free essay sample

A domesticated animal is any animal that depends on a human for food, water and shelter this includes farm animals such as cattle, horses, sheep, chickens, goats, dogs and cats. There are relatively few domesticated animals compared to the huge number of species on the planet. As well as the obvious there are also a couple of species of insect (e.g. the silk worm) that are classified as domesticated. Certain birds, besides chickens and fish, are also considered domestic, even a species of reptiles and some amphibians, turtles. Domesticated animals also need to be able to breed under human in a captive conditions. Therefore the Indian Elephant, although tamed, is not domestic. There are usually captured from wild bred animals. Animal domestication has played a huge role in the development of differing human civilizations. Horses and camels in Africa, Asia and Europe vs the Llamas and Alpacas in America provide an interesting example! In concluding, modern domestic animals are recognizable by the selective breeding they have been subjected to over generations of human interference. We will write a custom essay sample on Domestic or wild animal or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Thus the cows looks little like the Bovines of a cave paintings and it has become hard to recognize the Dachshund as a descendant of the wolf! A domesticated animal is any animal that depends on a human for food, water and shelter this includes farm animals such as cattle, horses, sheep, chickens, goats, dogs and cats. There are relatively few domesticated animals compared to the huge number of species on the planet. As well as the obvious there are also a couple of species of insect (e.g. the silk worm) that are classified as domesticated. Certain birds, besides chickens and fish, are also considered domestic, even a species of reptiles and some amphibians, turtles. Domesticated animals also need to be able to breed under human in a captive conditions. Therefore the Indian Elephant, although tamed, is not domestic. There are usually captured from wild bred animals. Animal domestication has  played a huge role in the development of differing human civilizations. Horses and camels in Africa, Asia and Europe vs the Llamas and Alpacas in America provide an interesting example! In concluding, modern domestic animals are recognizable by the selective breeding they have been subjected to over generations of human interference. Thus the cows looks little like the Bovines of a cave paintings and it has become hard to recognize the Dachshund as a descendant of the wolf! A domesticated animal is any animal that depends on a human for food, water and shelter this includes farm animals such as cattle, horses, sheep, chickens, goats, dogs and cats. There are relatively few domesticated animals compared to the huge number of species on the planet. As well as the obvious there are also a couple of species of insect (e.g. the silk worm) that are classified as domesticated. Certain birds, besides chickens and fish, are also considered domestic, even a species of reptiles and some amphibians, turtles. Domesticated animals also need to be able to breed under human in a captive conditions. Therefore the Indian Elephant, although tamed, is not domestic. There are usually captured from wild bred animals. Animal domestication has played a huge role in the development of differing human civilizations. Horses and camels in Africa, Asia and Europe vs the Llamas and Alpacas in America provide an interesting example! In concluding, modern domestic animals are recognizable by the selective breeding they have been subjected to over generations of human interference. Thus the cows looks little like the Bovines of a cave paintings and it has become hard to recognize the Dachshund as a descendant of the wolf!